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July 19, 2006 Miscellaneous

Chicago event: Internet/IP seminar with speech by Commissioner of Patents

There is an exciting intellectual property law event coming up Chicago on the afternoon of July 27, 2006, and the registration deadline (July 21) is quickly approaching.

The Intellectual Property Law Association of Chicago (“IPLAC”) will be hosting an afternoon seminar with three panels addressing copyright, trademark and patent law. The program will end with a keynote address by Commissioner for Patents John Doll.

I will be moderating a panel discussion on copyright. The panel will consist of University of Chicago Professor Doug Lichtman, Northwestern professor Clint Francis, and Sachnoff & Weaver attorney John Hines.

Registration fee is $25 if you’re not an IPLAC member. Here is a link to a registration form. I encourage you to attend.

April 10, 2024 Artificial Intelligence, Trademarks

Key Takeaways From the USPTO’s Guidance on AI Use

uspto ai

On April 10, 2024, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (“USPTO”) issued guidance to attorneys about using AI in matters before the USPTO. While there are no new rules implemented to address the use of AI, the guidance seeks to remind practitioners of the existing rules, inform of risks, and provide suggestions for mitigating those risks. The notice acknowledges that it is an effort to address AI considerations at the intersection of innovation, creativity and intellectual property, consistent with the President’s recent executive order that calls upon the federal government to enact and enforce protections against AI-related harms.

The guidance tends to address patent prosecution and examination more than trademark practice and prosecution, but there are still critically important ideas relevant to the practice of trademark law.

The USPTO takes a generally positive approach toward the use of AI, recognizing that tools using large language models can lower the barriers and costs for practicing before the USPTO and help practitioners serve clients better and more efficiently. But it recognizes potential downsides from misuse – some of which is not exclusive to intellectual property practice, e.g., using AI generated non-existent case citations in briefs filed before the USPTO and inadvertently disclosing confidential information via a prompt.

Key Reminders in the Guidance

The USPTO’s guidance reminds practitioners of some specific ways that they must adhere to USPTO rules and policies when using AI assistance in submissions – particularly because of the need for full, fair, and accurate disclosure and the protection of clients’ interests.

Candor and Good Faith: Practitioners involved in USPTO proceedings (including prosecution and matters such as oppositions and cancellation proceedings before the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (TTAB)) are reminded of the duties of candor and good faith. This entails the disclosure of all material information known to be relevant to a matter. Though the guidance is patent-heavy in its examples (e.g., discussing communications with patent examiners), it is not limited to patent prosecution but applies to trademark prosecution as well. The guidance details the broader duty of candor and good faith, which prohibits fraudulent conduct and emphasizes the integrity of USPTO proceedings and the reliability of registration certificates issued.

Signature Requirements: The guidance outlines the signature requirement for correspondence with the USPTO, ensuring that documents drafted with AI assistance are reviewed and believed to be true by the signer.

Confidentiality: The confidentiality of client information is of key importance, with practitioners being required to prevent unauthorized disclosure, which could be exacerbated by the use of AI in drafting applications or conducting clearance searches.

International Practice: Foreign filing and compliance with export regulations are also highlighted, especially in the context of using AI for drafting applications or doing clearance searches. Again, while the posture in the guidance tends to be patent heavy, the guidance is relevant to trademark practitioners working with foreign associates and otherwise seeking protection of marks in other countries. Practitioners are reminded of their responsibilities to prevent improper data export.

USPTO Electronic Systems: The guidance further addresses the use of USPTO electronic systems, emphasizing that access is governed by terms and conditions to prevent unauthorized actions.

Staying Up-to-date: The guidance reiterates the duties owed to clients, including competent and diligent representation, stressing the need for practitioners to stay informed about the technologies they use in representing clients, including AI tools.

More Practical Guidance for Use of Tools

The guidance next moves to a discussion of particular use of AI tools in light of the nature of the practice and the rules of which readers have been reminded. Key takeaways in this second half of the guidance include the following:

Text creation:

Word processing tools have evolved to incorporate generative AI capabilities, enabling the automation of complex tasks such as responding to office actions. While the use of such AI-enhanced tools in preparing documents for submission to the USPTO is not prohibited or subject to mandatory disclosure, users are reminded to adhere to USPTO policies and their duties of candor and good faith towards the USPTO and their clients when employing these technologies.

Likely motivated by court cases that have gotten a lot of attention because lawyers used ChatGPT to generate fake case cites, the USPTO addressed the importance of human-review of AI generated content. All USPTO submissions, regardless of AI involvement in their drafting, must be signed by the presenting party, who attests to the truthfulness of the content and the adequacy of their inquiry into its accuracy.  Human review is crucial to uphold the duty of candor and good faith, requiring the correction of any errors or omissions before submission. While there is no general duty to disclose AI’s use in drafting unless specifically asked, practitioners must ensure their submissions are legally sound and factually accurate and consult with their clients about the representation methods used.

More specifically, submissions to the TTAB and trademark applications that utilize AI tools require meticulous review to ensure accuracy and compliance with the applicable rules. This is vital for all documents, including evidence for trademark applications, responses to office actions, and legal briefs, to ensure they reflect genuine marketplace usage and are supported by factual evidence. Special attention must be given to avoid the inclusion of AI-generated specimens or evidence that misrepresents actual use or existence in commerce. Materials produced by AI that distort facts, include irrelevant content, or are unduly repetitive risk being deemed as submitted with improper intent, potentially leading to unnecessary delays or increased costs in the proceedings.

Filling out Forms:

AI tools can enhance the efficiency of filing documents with the USPTO by automating tasks such as form completion and document uploads. But users must ensure their use aligns with USPTO rules, particularly regarding signatures, which must be made by a person and not delegated to AI. Users are reminded that USPTO.gov accounts are limited to use by natural persons. AI systems cannot hold such accounts, emphasizing the importance of human oversight in submissions to ensure adherence to USPTO regulations and policies.

Automated Access to USPTO IT Systems:

The guidance notes that when utilizing AI tools to interact with USPTO IT systems, it is crucial to adhere to legal and regulatory requirements, ensuring authorized use only. Users must have proper authorization, such as being an applicant, registrant, or practitioner, to file documents or access information. AI systems cannot be considered “users” and thus are ineligible for USPTO.gov accounts. Individuals employing AI assistance must ensure the tool does not overstep access permissions, risking potential revocation of the applicable USPTO.gov account or face other legal risk for unauthorized access. Additionally, the USPTO advises against excessive data mining from USPTO databases with AI tools. The USPTO reminds readers that it provides bulk data products that could assist in these efforts.

March 12, 2024 Blockchain

Key takeaways from the USPTO and Copyright Office joint report to Congress on NFTs

On March 12, 2024, the United States Patent and Trademark Office and the Copyright Office released a joint report from a study they did exploring the impact of NFTs on Intellectual Property law. The study aimed to assess how innovations in digital art ownership and authenticity verification align with existing intellectual property frameworks.

The report emphasized that NFTs present novel opportunities for intellectual property owners, possibly enhancing licensing avenues and offering creators greater control over their works and a larger share of the resulting revenues. On the other hand, the immutable and decentralized nature of blockchain and the underlying technology of NFTs, introduce big challenges in enforcing intellectual property rights, amplifying concerns around online piracy and counterfeiting.

A significant issue that the report highlighted is the widespread confusion around the scope of rights obtained in an NFT transaction, often leading to misconceptions about owning intellectual property rights in the associated digital assets. Despite these challenges, the study found that current intellectual property laws are generally adequate to address the complexities introduced by NFTs, with both the Copyright Office and the USPTO favoring educational initiatives over legislative changes to clarify the nature of rights involved in NFT transactions. So it is not likely we will see new NFT legislation – at least the Copyright Office and the USPTO are not pushing for it.

To conclude the report, the USPTO and the Copyright Office committed to further exploring the use of emerging technologies to improve agency operations and to ongoing engagement with stakeholders to enhance understanding of NFT-related intellectual property issues.

All in all, there is nothing too surprising or revealing in the report, but it does provide a great summary of the various issues. Below is the full text of the report.

Joint-USPTO-USCO-Report-on-NFTs-and-Intellectual-Property
November 14, 2022 Blockchain, Trademarks

Meta prevails in trademark infringement litigation over its logo

In the case of Dfinity Foundation v. Meta Platforms, Inc., the court considered whether the new logo that Meta adopted after its 2021 rebranding infringed upon Dfinity’s trademark. In the infringement litigation that Dfinity brought over the issue, Meta moved to dismiss. The court granted the motion.

Dfinity operates the Internet Computer – a public blockchain network that seeks to provide developers and entrepreneurs with a public compute platform for building websites, enterprise systems and internet services within an open environment. Key to Dfinity’s efforts are “dapps” or decentralized applications. In 2021, the United States Patent and Trademark Office granted Dfinity a registration for the following mark:dfinity

When Meta rebranded in 2021, Mark Zuckerberg indicated, among other things, that the company would work with creators and developers in a decentralized fashion. In connection with the rebranding, Meta adopted and sought registration of this logo:meta logo

Dfinity sued in federal court in California alleging, among other things, trademark infringement. It alleged that the similarities between the marks, coupled with the related services and customer bases, will cause confusion because “consumers will mistakenly believe that Meta and its services … are connected with, sponsored by, affiliated with, or related to Dfinity and the Internet Computer.”

Meta moved to dismiss. In granting the motion to dismiss, the court found that confusion between Meta’s logo and Dfinity’s logo was unlikely as a matter of law.

Similarity of the marks

Employing the “sight, sound, and meaning” test, the court found the marks were dissimilar: Dfinity’s shape was a traditional infinity sign, with the lines crossing at the horizontal and vertical midpoint, rendered in a precise multicolor format that Dfinity instructs users of the logo not to alter. In the court’s view, the Meta logo looks different – while it includes two loops and bears some resemblance to an infinity sign, the lines cross above the vertical midpoint and the two loops are squished into vertical oblong shapes. Meta did not claim color as a feature of its mark.

Relatedness of services

On the question of whether the services provided under the two marks were similar, the court remained neutral. It noted that Dfinity has targeted  developers interested in using blockchain to “build websites, enterprise systems and internet services within an open environment.” At the same time, “Meta targets everyone, including developers, some of whom presumably are interested in building their products within, or at least compatible with, such an ‘open environment.'” Meta argued that its products are antithetical to that vision, and there is no indication that it is interested in expanding into the realm occupied by Dfinity and the Internet Computer.  But the court found that given Meta’s metamorphosis over the last few years, such a move is not implausible on the pleadings, particularly in light of Zuckerberg’s statement at the launch of the Meta brand.

Sophistication of users

The court then evaluated the types of users that would encounter the Dfinity and Meta logos, and whether, given their level of sophistication, confusion would be likely. The court found that because of the high level of sophistication, it is less likely one would be confused: “That these sophisticated people, immersed in the intricacies of the tech world, would be duped by a logo, particularly one that is not similar in key respects . . . borders on implausible.”

Actual confusion

Next the court considered whether purported instances of actual confusion weighed in favor of Dfinity. In this situation, Dfinity had provided six tweets that purported to show that users were confused. But the court disagreed. First, it noted that because the tweets were in reply to a Dfinity tweet, they did not express how the users would experience an encounter with the mark “organically”. And second, the court found that the content of the tweets indicated the users actually knew the difference between the two enterprises.

Marketing channels

Having found that the parties’ services were not “totally unrelated” at this stage, the court also found that the parties’ marketing channels were similar, but that this factor did not weigh as heavily as the others previously discussed.

Meta’s intent

Though Dfinity alleged “willful and wonton disregard of Dfinity’s established and superior rights” in its trademark, it did not provide evidence of that. And given that the court found the marks to be dissimilar, the court also found that Meta’s intent did not support a finding of likelihood of confusion.

Dfinity Foundation v. Meta Platforms, Inc., 2022 WL 16857036 (N.D. California, November 10, 2022)

See also: Court throws out Facebook’s lawsuit against Teachbook.com

 

July 29, 2020 Copyright

Work Made For Hire – Part 1

Work made for hire is an important concept for almost all employers employees, but people often misuse the term, or use it in a way that does not capture all of its nuance. We’ll take a look at this doctrine in three parts. Here are a few things to know as an introduction.

Work made for hire is a copyright concept

Work made for hire is a copyright issue. The Copyright Act defines work made for hire at 17 USC §101. The key question relates to who owns a particular creative work, whether that be written text, a photograph, a video, computer software, or any other type of work that copyright protects.

It pertains to employees and independent contractors

Another thing to know about work made for hire is that it addresses the question of who owns a creative work that is created by one party for someone else. That arise in the context of an employee working for an employer, or it could be an independent contractor working for the hiring party. In the employment situation, it is pretty straightforward – the employer owns what the employee creates within the scope of his or her employment. But in the independent contractor context, a lot depends on what the agreement says.

Work made for hire concepts address patents and trademarks differently than copyright

Work made for hire concepts apply differently to copyright than they do other forms of intellectual property. Ownership is treated differently when an employee or a contractor develops patentable subject matter, or develops material that could be used as a trademark. Patent applications list the actual employee as the inventor. And trademark rights generally do not come into existence until the company has used the mark in commerce.

Need help with a technology or intellectual property issue? Call me or send an email.

(630) 362-7237 | ebrown@internetcases.com

About the author

Evan Brown is a technology and intellectual property attorney in Chicago, helping clients with a wide variety of issues concerning copyright, trademark, domain names and technology services.

Blog posts in this series:

May 7, 2020 Copyright, Trade Secrets

Three ways trade secrets can be more powerful than copyright

Copyrights and patents and trademarks usually come to mind when thinking about intellectual property. But trade secrets are a critically important and very useful form of intellectual property and are often overlooked. Here are three ways that trade secrets can be more powerful than copyright.

Three ways trade secrets can be more powerful than copyright

1 – Trade secrets protect ideas and facts (while copyright does not).

Something qualifies as a trade secret if it (1) has economic value because it is secret, and (2) has been the subject of efforts to keep it secret. So a trade secret can be an intangible idea – like the knowledge of how to do something. Or it can be a set of facts, like a list of customers. Copyright wouldn’t protect either of these things – ideas or facts – because copyright covers creative expression. You can’t look to copyright to stop others from using ideas you have or lists of facts you compile. But trade secrets, on the other hand, might cover you.

2 – You don’t have to register trade secrets.

Let me try to clarify one thing really quickly – you don’t have to register copyrights either to own them. But you do have to register that copyright if you need to sue anyone for infringement. With trade secrets, there’s not even any such thing as registration. You have trade secrets from possessing valuable information that you have actually kept secret. That’s it.

3 – Trade secrets can last forever.

Copyright lasts a long time, but trade secrets can last even longer. When an employee of a company creates a copyrighted work, the rights last for 95 years. But there is no expiration date for trade secrets. For as long as a company keeps its valuable trade secret information secret, it’s protected by trade secrets law.

Other ways?

There are other ways trade secrets are more powerful than copyright. Can you think of any? Leave a comment here or take to Twitter (I’m @internetcases there). 

See also: 

Question of who owns source code proceeds to trial in trade secrets case
June 22, 2016 Trademarks

Six things business owners should know about trademarks

#1 – Trademark law protects your brand.

shield

Trademarks are intellectual property. The different categories of intellectual property can be confusing, and as you are identifying and evaluating the different legal issues your business faces, you should seek to understand the role that each category plays. That way you can determine where you should focus your resources to cover the company’s greatest needs. Every business has trademark needs. Trademark law gives exclusive rights to providers of goods and services to use the company’s distinctive marks in connection with the company’s goods and services. A trademark (or a service mark, collectively “marks”) identify the source of goods and services. So while the company is the one that may claim rights in the trademark, it is useful to remember that the ultimate reason for trademark protection is to keep members of the consuming public from being confused about where the goods or services come from.

#2 – Registration is not necessary, but it is a good idea.

seal

At least in the U.S., trademark rights arise from using the mark in commerce. This means a couple of different things. For one, the law will provide your company with exclusive rights to use a certain mark in connection with certain goods or services by virtue of your having used the mark in commerce in connection with those goods or services. But there are limits to this protection — you can only claim that exclusivity in the geographic area in which you’ve actually used the mark. Getting a registration with the United States Patent and Trademark Office helps you in this area. Once the USPTO awards your company a registration certificate for the mark, you are the presumed owner of the exclusive rights to that mark in connection with those goods and services anywhere in the United States, regardless of where you have actually done business. A registration carries with it other benefits as well — you can use the “circle R” designation with the mark, and your registration serves to help give notice to (i.e., warn) other companies who might consider adopting the same or similar mark.

#3 – Descriptive words and phrases generally cannot be trademarks.

descriptive

Trademark law does not allow a company to claim exclusive rights on words or phrases that merely describe the product or some characteristic of it. This is a common issue that companies face when deciding on a mark for adoption and registration. Descriptive terms are good in that they convey to the consuming public what the product is all about. But descriptive terms are to be avoided in that they are not distinctive. Unless a mark is distinctive, the trademark laws do not recognize it as a trademark or service mark. A mark can be “inherently distinctive” in a number of ways. It may be a made up word (e.g., Kodak), “arbitrary” in that the original meaning of the word does not correspond with the products (e.g., Apple for computers), or “suggestive” – sort of describing the product but requiring a step in imagination (e.g., Beautyrest for mattresses). Or the mark can be a design. Marks can become distinctive over time (usually after 5 years of use). This is known as “acquired distinctiveness.”

#4 – Smart business owners do trademark clearance.

clearance

Trademark clearance is the process that a company goes through before actually using or seeking to register a mark. The goal is to become reasonably sure that the use of the proposed mark will not put you at high risk of infringing someone else’s mark. Clearance also helps prevent wasting resources on a trademark application that will get rejected by the USPTO because there is already a similar mark that someone else has applied for or registered. Clearance usually has a couple steps. Many companies have their trademark counsel perform “knockout searches” to identify any obvious risks of conflict. This can be as simple as doing a web search and a search of the USPTO database for marks that look and sound the same and are for similar goods or services. Before going all out on adopting and seeking to register a mark, however, it is a good idea to have trademark counsel perform a comprehensive search and advise on the results. A number of parties offer comprehensive search services. The key question in trademark clearance is likelihood of confusion. A mark owner needs to be reasonably sure that using the proposed mark in commerce will not cause confusion among the confusing public as to the source of the goods or services offered under the mark.

#5 – Trademark fair use is a thing.

starbucks

In some circumstances a company can use another company’s trademark without much risk of infringement. Generally this falls under the heading of “fair use.” Classic fair use is when one company uses another’s mark in just a descriptive sense. For example, a laundromat may say in its advertising that it is next door to the Burger King. In that case, the use of Burger King is not an infringement. Nominative fair use is when a company uses another mark to describe some characteristic of that mark. A commercial for Toyota, for example, may use the Honda trademark for purposes of comparing the two product lines.

#6 – Use it or lose it. Protect it or lose it.

abandoned

Trademark rights come from the company’s use of the mark, and there is always a risk that those rights might be abandoned. If a company stops using a mark, a court may find that it has abandoned its rights, and another company would be free to adopt and use the mark. The USPTO requires that documents be filed every few years to ensure that marks that are listed as registered remain in use. If a company does not take appropriate steps to ensure its mark is distinctive in the marketplace, it can similarly be found to have abandoned its rights. So mark owners should do some “policing” to see that there no one else uses a confusingly similar mark on similar products. If the company discovers such use, it must be diligent in seeking to get the other company to stop, through sending a cease and desist letter or through litigation when appropriate.

Food&Beverage photo courtesy schatz under this Creative Commons license.

Coffee sign photo courtesy Aaron Gustafson under this Creative Commons license.

Evan Brown is an attorney in Chicago advising clients on matters dealing with trademarks, copyright, technology, the internet and new media.

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